MELANESIANS
Vladimir Ageu DE SAFI’I
Copy ulang dari: http://www.everyculture.com/wc/Norway-to-Russia/Melanesians.html
PRONUNCIATION:
mel-uh-NEE-zhuns
ALTERNATE
NAMES: Papuans
LOCATION:
Papua New Guinea,
Indonesia (Irian Jaya), Vanuatu (the former New Hebrides), New Caledonia, the
Solomon Islands, and some smaller neighboring islands
POPULATION:
Unknown
LANGUAGE:
English; Tok
Pisin, Hiri Motu (Papua New Guinea); Bislama (Vanuatu); Solomon Islands Pidgin
English (Solomon Islands); Bahasa Indonesia (Irian Jaya); other native
languages
RELIGION:
Christianity;
some native religions
Photo source: www.genuardis.net |
1.
INTRODUCTION
Melanesia
is not a country, but instead a "culture area." Culture area is a
term used by anthropologists to refer to a geographical region where people
share many of the same traits. These traits include family structure, marriage
rules, organization of society, and ways of gaining survival needs or making a
living. Melanesia itself is part of a larger culture area called Oceania that
includes Melanesia, Polynesia, Micronesia, and Australia. The native
inhabitants of Melanesia, called Melanesians, are characteristically
dark-skinned with frizzy hair. They are sometimes referred to as
"Papuans," from the Malay word papua meaning "frizzy
haired."
2.
LOCATION
Melanesia
includes the islands of New Guinea, Vanuatu (the former New Hebrides), New
Caledonia, the Solomon Islands, and some smaller neighboring islands. The
island of New Guinea is divided politically down the middle. The western half
of the island is a province of Indonesia called Irian Jaya. The eastern half is
the independent nation of Papua New Guinea. New Caledonia is under the
administration of France, and Vanuatu became an independent nation in 1980. The
Solomon Islands are divided between Papua New Guinea and the independent
country of the Solomon Islands (formerly a British Protectorate).
All
of Melanesia lies within the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn and is south of
the equator. Melanesians migrate locally to other nearby islands or to
Australia. A small percentage leave the region entirely and take up residence
in the United States, Canada, or Europe.
3.
LANGUAGE
In
many of the island nations that comprise Melanesia, there is more than one
official national language. For instance, Papua New Guinea has three official
languages: English, Tok Pisin (an English-based pidgin language), and Hiri Motu
(an Austronesian-based pidgin language). Tok Pisin has a history based in
colonialism and forced plantation labor during the 1800s in the South Pacific.
The language derives from a kind of nautical English that was spread throughout
the Pacific by sailors. It has similarities to English as well as to the
Austronesian languages spoken by the plantation laborers. A sample sentence in
Tok Pisin might look like this: Bai mi kaikai wanpela kaukau, meaning
"I will eat a yam."
Within
the region of Melanesia, the island of New Guinea alone has more than one
thousand different languages. Some of these languages have as few as fifty
speakers, while others, such as Enga, have a few hundred thousand. Many of the
these languages have never been documented or described.
4.
FOLKLORE
None
of the cultures of Melanesia ever developed a native writing system.
Consequently, oral history (historical information passed on through stories)
is important to them. In the Sepik River region of Papua New Guinea, the origin
myth of many groups tells of a crocodile who split in two. His upper jaw became
the heavens and his lower jaw became the earth. For many of these groups, there
was also an original pair of humans that sprang from the mud and are
responsible for populating the Earth. In this origin myth, however, the
original pair are brothers.
5.
RELIGION
Christianity
has spread throughout Melanesia. Missionaries are very active in this region.
Native religions are still practiced by many groups, although in modified form.
In many societies in the Sepik River region of Papua New Guinea, the original
belief systems included aspects of headhunting and cannibalism. Both practices
have been illegal in the region since the late 1920s. Most groups believe in a
variety of spirits that inhabit the forests, mountains, and swamps. They also
believe that the ghosts of their ancestors inhabit the same plane of reality
that they do. In fact, in the highlands of Papua New Guinea, when Melanesians
saw the first Europeans, they believed them to be the ghosts of their dead
ancestors returning to the community. Some groups jokingly refer to white
tourists in the same way.
6.
MAJOR
HOLIDAYS
Independence
Day is a major holiday for the independent Melanesian nations of Papua New
Guinea and Vanuatu. For those that belong to the British Commonwealth, British
holidays such as the Queen's birthday are celebrated in urban areas. Banks and
schools are closed for those holidays, but in areas where there are no banks or
schools, these holidays have little meaning.
7.
RITES
OF PASSAGE
Puberty
is an especially important rite in all Melanesian societies. However, these
societies differ in regard to which sex undergoes initiation rites. In the
Sepik River region, males used to undergo extreme and elaborate initiation
rites. These involved extensive scarification (scarring) as well as brutal
treatment by older males. Scarification has all but disappeared in the Sepik
region, except for the few males who can afford this expensive process. In some
societies, males at puberty were expected to kill someone and take their first
head. This process was halted by colonial administrators in the 1920s, soon
after the first European contacts in the region. Girls generally had less harsh
puberty rites. With the onset of menstruation, they often underwent a brief
period of seclusion. Funerals were also important rites of passage in
traditional Melanesian societies. They involved much feasting and display of
emotion.
8.
RELATIONSHIPS
Urban
and rural Melanesians greet and take leave of each other in extremely different
ways. In parts of the highlands of Papua New Guinea, males used to greet each
other by rubbing each other's groin region. In most of these cultures, the
Western handshake has replaced this traditional form of greeting. Special
ceremonial greetings took place when one group went to trade with another.
Many
groups require that marriages occur between persons who come from different
villages. Special courtship rituals still take place between men and women in
these instances. Among the Chimbu of Papua New Guinea, men use their singing
ability to woo women. They also decorate their bodies in elaborate ways to look
beautiful for the women they are trying to court. Marriages, however, have to
be negotiated between the families. They usually involve the payment of a
"bride price" to the bride's father by the prospective son-in-law.
9.
LIVING
CONDITIONS
Melanesia
is a tropical region and its inhabitants experience the hardships of life in an
environment where rain, heat, and mosquitoes are ever-present. Malaria is
endemic (native) to the region and most local inhabitants of the low-lying
areas suffer from this debilitating disease. Healing is a long process in the
tropics and, as a result, infection is a serious problem. Most of Melanesia,
though, is a relatively healthy region of the world.
10. FAMILY LIFE
In
many Melanesian societies, there is a great deal of antagonism (hostility or
opposition) between men and women. It is common in many villages to have
separate men's and women's houses. In the Sepik River region, men's ceremonial
houses are off-limits to all women and to uninitiated (non-adult) males. Men would
traditionally spend most of their time in this large house where matters of
ceremonial importance were often planned. Men would also often take their meals
here. There were no real family meals in traditional societies along the Sepik.
Food for the day was often placed in a woven basket that was suspended from the
house rafters. People simply ate when they got hungry.
Women
are the primary caregivers to children and the primary food producers. Women
play important roles in ceremonial and political life in many Melanesian
societies.
Households
vary in size. In some very small societies, everyone in the group lives in one
house. Antagonism between the sexes is not as dramatic among these groups as it
is among larger groups. In all societies, however, the domestic space is
divided between males and females.
11. CLOTHING
Traditional
clothing in Melanesia was minimal by Western European standards. In the
highland societies of New Guinea, men went naked except for a penis sheath made
from the gourd of a vine. Nowadays, men only dress this way in a few remote
societies. For the most part they wear Western-style shorts or long trousers
and shirts. In these societies, women wear skirts made from handmade fiber.
Traditionally, an important part of personal adornment in these societies was
body decoration, including elaborate painting and the use of various headgear,
wigs, and other items. The most extensive adornment took place when exchanges
between groups were to occur. These exchanges were times of feasting and
boasting, and individual beauty was an important aspect of these events. Some
individuals at these events still adorn themselves in this manner.
In
many parts of Melanesia the all-purpose laplap has become the standard
unisex item of clothing. Laplap refers to a piece of cloth, usually
store-bought, that is wrapped around the waist or up under the armpits to cover
the body, somewhat like a sarong. In the lower altitude areas, women still
prefer not to wear any covering on their upper body. However, when tourists are
in the village, Melanesian women may adjust the laplap to cover their breasts.
12. FOOD
The
sago palm is an important foodstuff in parts of the lowland areas of Melanesia.
The pith (core tissue) of the palm is processed into a starch that can be made
into pancakes or dumplings. A sago pancake has the appearance of a freshly
cooked, soft tortilla. In the higher elevations, yams are the staple diet, with
pork eaten on ceremonial occasions.
13. EDUCATION
Many
parts of Melanesia do not have access to formal, European-style education.
Education focuses on traditional ways of life and the values of the society.
Schools are part of urban life for Melanesians and have reached some remote
areas. Education in schools revolves around literacy (establishing reading and
writing skills) in the national language(s). They also prepare Melanesians for
urban life, such as civil service (governmental administration) careers. In
Papua New Guinea, the educational system is based on the Australian model, where
formal, required education ends at grade ten. Grades eleven and twelve are only
for students who wish to pursue a university education. Literacy in Tok Pisin
is growing among the urban population in particular, while literacy in English
is lower. Children who attend school have at least basic skills in written
English.
14. CULTURAL HERITAGE
There
are a number of musical traditions within Melanesia. In the Solomon Islands,
there is a tradition of panpipe orchestras. Drums are nearly universal in the
musical traditions of Melanesia. Melanesian drums are usually hand-held,
hourglass-shaped, and single-headed. The Tok Pisin word for this type of drum
is kundu . In many highland societies of Papua New Guinea, large groups
of men play drums together at ceremonial gatherings called sing sing .
Dance
is another important part of ritual life. Both men and women dance; however, in
many societies there are separate men's and women's dances.
Written
literature is a recent development in Melanesia. Many pieces of written
literature are the transcriptions of folklore and oral history.
15. EMPLOYMENT
Wage
labor was introduced to Melanesia by European colonists. Prior to this, work
was often cooperative and it continues to be for village-based projects.
Individuals have certain responsibilities to their relatives and in-laws. These
typically include working for them on cooperative projects such as
house-building. In some societies, a son-in-law has to work in his
father-in-law's gardens for a fixed period of time after his marriage.
Anthropologists call this practice "bride service."
16. SPORTS
Soccer,
rugby, and cricket are important sports in Melanesia. Some societies have
changed these sports in unique ways or adapted them to meet local conditions.
In a well-known case in the Trobriand Islands off the coast of Papua New
Guinea, cricket is played by local rules that do not allow for a winner. In
many remote villages of the various islands in the region, the inhabitants have
no knowledge of these sports.
17. RECREATION
Electricity
does not reach many Melanesian homes, so television is a luxury of the urban
dwellers. There is one television station in Papua New Guinea called Em TV in
Tok Pisin, one of the national languages of the country. Em in Tok Pisin
means "it, he, or she," so the station's name means something close
to "It's TV." Australian, American, and locally produced shows are
aired during a limited viewing schedule. Cable and satellite service are
available to the wealthy residents of the islands.
Traditional
recreation involves storytelling and performances of music, dance, and song. No
recreational event is complete without chewing betel nuts, which are a
stimulant and a favorite of most Melanesians.
18. CRAFTS AND HOBBIES
Art
in most Melanesian societies is utilitarian (designed for usefulness rather
than beauty). In the Sepik River region, there is an extremely well developed
tradition of artistic expression involving sculpture and painting. Every item
is elaborately decorated with important animals and birds, as well as geometric
and abstract designs. Masks, once an important aspect of ritual performances,
have now become important items of tourist art. Every year, several thousand
tourists visit this area of New Guinea to purchase the art and artifacts of
these people. It is not an industry that creates any wealthy Papuans, however.
19. SOCIAL PROBLEMS
Like
every other group of people, Melanesians are dealing with the modern world.
Alcoholism is becoming a more serious problem in parts of Melanesia where males
have money and time on their hands. AIDS poses a serious health threat in Papua
New Guinea, especially in urban areas. Condoms have only recently become
available. The social phenomenon of "rascals" in parts of Papua New
Guinea is a cause for concern for locals and visitors alike. Rascals are
unemployed, disadvantaged youths who rob people as well as businesses, often
assaulting their victims. Guns are rarely used in these robberies since they
are difficult to come by and ammunition is illegal by Papua New Guinea law.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Codrington,
Robert Henry. The Melanesians: Studies in Their Anthropology and Folklore. New
Haven, Conn.: HRAF Press, 1957.
Holdsworth,
David. Festivals and Celebrations in Papua New Guinea. Bathurst, Australia:
Robert Brown & Associates, 1982.
Ryan,
P., ed. The Encyclopedia of Papua New Guinea . Melbourne: Melbourne
University Press, 1972.
Spriggs,
Matthew. The Island Melanesians. Oxford: Blackwell, 1997.
WEBSITES
Interknowledge
Corp. [Online] Available http://www.interknowledge.com/papua-newguinea/
, 1998.
World
Travel Guide. Papua New Guinea. [Online] Available http://www.wtgonline.com/country/pg/gen.html
, 1998.
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